Models Of Research For Islamic Higher Education

(Paper Presented at International Conference On Islamic Universities, ISID Gontor)

Religious communities across the world are seriously challenged today by the pervasive influence of secular materialism and its value system. They are faced with a major dilemma about how best to respond the challenges of the future. Some will say that the answer is in going back to the past; others will urge us to plunge headlong into the future.

In truth, man needs both roots and branches in order to survive and flourish. The dilemma of how best to respond the challenges today requires an honest assessment of the following questions about the relationship between Islam and science, Islamic perspective on scientific inquiry, the specialties of Islamic paradigm of science, and finally the models of research for Islamic higher education. To a large extent, the future of human will depend on how well we answer these questions and to what extent we are successful in managing our efforts along with the sacred vision of life we have as Moslems.

As stated in the holy Qur’an, (al Ghasyiah, 17-20), Allah obliges Moslems to think of and learn about all of His creations,

أَفَلاَ يَنْظُرُوْنَ إِلىَ اْلإِبِلِ كَيْفَ خُلِقَتْ. وَإِلىَ السَّمَاءِ كَيْفَ رُفِعَتْ. وَإِلىَ اْلجِبَالِ كَيْفَ نُصِبَتْ. وَإِلىَ اْلأَرْضِ كَيْفَ سُطِحَتْ {الغاشية: 17-20}

“Do they no look at the camel, how they are created. And at the heaven, how it is raised. And at the mountains, how they are rooted (and fixed firm). And at the earth, how it is out spread”.

Furthermore, Allah puts those who could think all His creations several degrees and calls them as ulul albab, that means those who always think of Allah’s creation whenever and wherever they are in any kinds of condition (Ali Imran, 190-191):

إِنَّ ِفيْ خَلْقِ السَّمَوَاتِ وَاْلأَرْضِ وَاخْتِلاَفِ اللَّيْلِ وَالنَّهَارِ لآيَاتٍ ِلأُولِي اْلأَلْبَابِ. الَّذِيْنَ يَذْكُرُوْنَ اللهَ قِيَاماً وَقُعُوْداً وَعَلَى جُنُوْبِهِمْ وَيَتَفَكَّرُوْنَ ِفيْ خَلْقِ السَّمَوَاتِ وَاْلأَرْضِ، رَبَّنَا مَاخَلَقْتَ هَذَا بَاطِلاً، سُبْحَانَكَ فَقِنَا عَذَابَ النَّارِ {آل عمران: 190}

“Verily! In the creation of the heavens and the earth, and the alternation of night and day, there are indeed signs for man of understanding. Those who remember Allah (always, and in prayer) standing, sitting, and lying down on their sides, and think deeply about the creations of the heavens and the earth, (saying): “Our Lord! You are not created (all) this without purpose, glory to You! (exalted are you above all that they associate with you as partners). Give us salvation from the torment of the Fire”.

What do all those verses mean? Allah asks Moslems to realize everything on earth with their complexity and nature with its knowledge and reasoning and finally lead to the question ‘who creates all those things’. Islam grows hand in hand with science because it accepts science as an instrument to think of what Allah has created.

A. Islam and Science
Before going further, I need to clarify the term ‘religion’ in this concept. Though broadly known, the ‘religion’ does not completely fit to Islam. Why? Almost in all dictionaries, religion is narrowly defined and it may cause misunderstanding of the concept of Islam. It is often understood to refer to the domains of ‘supernatural, magic, rituals, dogma, and institution. These are irrelevant to the essence of Islam. Quoting Hanafi (2000: 1), I’d rather say the best terms for Islam are Ethics, Human and Social Science, or Ideology. Islam is the description of man in society, his primary needs, his moral commitments, and his social action. Islam is also seen as a system of ideas coming from a long historical experience, that of previous revelations in history, validated in reality and re-adjusted according to the human capability.

Therefore, there is no doubt that Islam is the religion of reason and at the same time of conscience. Moslems accept the truth of religion by using scientific knowledge, but make inferences from the truth they observe based on their conscience. In Islamic perspective, anyone using his capacity of reason and conscience in thinking of any object in this universe will understand that those are created by Allah for human needs to live. This universe with everything in it is well designed and there is no reason at all to say that it is by coincidence. The two-aboved mentioned verses have been the evidences of the spirit of Islam to oblige Moslems to explore all objects (concrete and abstract) in this universe using logic and reasons and explain to all mankind. Following the verses in al Qur’an, the Prophet Muhammad SAW also asks his adherents to acquire knowledge as stated in his Hadits (HR. Tirmidzi), “Searching knowledge and is obligatory for Moslems. Always acquire knowledge and spread it to others”.

Using those verses as the basis of understanding the position of Islam in perceiving science, we may conclude that studying and exploring what is alive and dead, what appears and disappears in their surroundings with their systematic characteristics will find the benefit of science and ever-lasting power of Allah.

The following are the other verses proving the commitment of Islam in science.
Al Qaaf, 50: 6-10:

بَلْ كَذَّبُوْا بِاْلحَقِّ لَمَّا جَاءَهُمْ فَهُمْ فِيْ أَمْرٍ مَرِيْجٍ. أَفَلَمْ يَنْظُرُوْا إِلىَ السَّمَاءِ فَوْقَهُمْ كَيْفَ بَنَيْنَاهَا وَزَيَّنَّاهَا وَمَا لَهَا مِنْ فُرُوْجٍ. وَاْلأَرْضَ مَدَدْنَاهَا وَأَلْقَيْنَا فِيْهَا رَوَاسِيَ وَأَنْْبَتْنَا فِيْهَا مِنْ كُلِّ زَوْجٍ بَهِيْجٍ. تَبْصِرَةً وَذِكْرَى لِكُلِّ عَبْدٍ مُنِيْبٍ. وَنَزَّلْنَا مِنَ السَّمَاءِ مَاءً مُبَارَكًا َوأَنْبَتْنَا بِهِ جَنَّاتٍ وَحَبَّ اْلحَصِيْدِ. وَالنَّخْلَ بَاسِقَاتٍ لَهَا طَلْعٌ نَضِيْدٌ. {ق: 5-10}

“Nay, but they have denied the truth (this Qur’an) when it was come to them, so they are in a confused state (cannot differentiate between right and wrong). Have they not looked at the heaven above them, how We have made it and adorned it, and there are no rifts in it?. And the earth! We have spread it out and set thereon mountains standing firm, and have produce therein every kind of lovely growth (plants). An insight and a Reminder for every slave who turns to Allah in repentance (i.e. the one who believes in the Oneness of Allah and performs deeds of his obedience, and always begs His pardon). And we send down blessed water (rain) from the sky, when We produce therewith gardens and grain (every kind of harvests) that are reaped. And tall date-palms, with ranged clusters”.

Al Mulk , 67: 3:

الَّذِيْ خَلَقَ سَبْعَ سَمَوَاتٍ طِبَاقًاصلى مَا تَرَى فِيْ خَلْقِ الرَّحْمَنِ مِنْ تَفَاوُتٍصلى ثُمَّ ارْجِعِ اْلبَصَرَ هَلْ تَرَى مِنْ فُطُوْرٍ {الملك: 3}

“Who has created the seven heavens one above another; you can see no fault in the creation of the Most Gracious. Then look again: “Can you see any rifts?”.

Al Thaariq, 86: 5:

فَلْيَنْظُرِ اْلإِنْسَانُ مِمَّ خُلِقَ {الطارق: 5}

“So let man see from what he is created!”.

and Al Ghaasyiyah, 88: 17- 20:

أَفَلاَ يَنْظُرُوْنَ إِلىَ اْلإِبِلِ كَيْفَ خُلِقَتْ. وَإِلىَ السَّمَاءِ كَيْفَ رُفِعَتْ. وَإِلىَ اْلجِبَالِ كَيْفَ نُصِبَتْ. وَإِلىَ اْلأَرْضِ كَيْفَ سُطِحَتْ {الغاشية: 17-20}

“Do they no look at the camel, how they are created. And at the heaven, how it is raised. And at the mountains, how they are rooted (and fixed firm). And at the earth, how it is out spread”.

All those verses imply very clearly on the emphasis that Islam asks its adherents to study and think of what is all around them: sky, rain, mountains, oceans, water, plants, stars, birth, death, and geographical strands of this earth. Only through science and scientific inquiry can those phenomena be studied in such a systematic way and be explained to all men. Such scientific observation will make Moslems conscious of all mysteries behind God’s creations and could finally admire Him as the Ever-lasting and the Most Powerful.

Such verses and other similar ones invite public and academic discourses among Moslem scholars. It cannot be denied that modern science can never develop without the presence of Moslem scholars. In History of Arabs, Philip K. Hitti (Abidin, 2009: vii-viii) states Spanish made a miracle intellectual history in medieval Europe between 8- 13th Century through Islam (as attached). It was in such a great moment that Islam reached its most glorious age when scientific knowledge and Islam worked together.

B. Scientific Inquiry in Islamic Perspective
From Islamic perspective, the praxis of academic inquiries represents the implementation of normative ideal bases of Islamic teaching. The fundamental philosophy of inquiry according to Islam affirms that Moslem scholars have to develop and disseminate the Islamic philosophy of knowledge. The concept of ilm (knowledge) should be defined as the entire academic fields, namely: (1) ontologically covers both the empirical and non-empirical worlds, (2) epistemologically applies observational, logical, and divine revelation approach, and (3) axiologically is intended to increase knowledge of human about Allah, to develop Moslem society, and to solve various practical problems.

Considering the normative basis, the adoption of Islamic perspective in academic inquiries serves at least three special functions, namely: (1) driving the process of integration between the existing academic inquiries into Islamic paradigm of inquiry, (3) providing the frame of reference for all of Moslem academic society in conducting academic inquiries.

A number of foundational norms have to be appreciated by Moslem scholars in adopting Islamic perspective. Some of the foundational norms represent the fundamental norms of inquiries in general, while the rest represent specific fundamental norms alighted from the Islamic values. Three special fundamental values which must be fulfilled by every Moslem academicians is: belief in God, truth, and integration, while three fundamental values which go into effect in general in every inquirer is honesty, transparency, and professional partnership.

Belief in God means that every Moslem academicians have to take as the base the spirit of increasing faithfulness to the glory of God. These fundamental values are manifested by being committed to study their fields to discover the sunatullah – the natural laws.

Truth means that academic inquires done by Moslem academicians should be based on the spirit to discover and find out the truth, not only at the observational and rational level, but also at the level of belief that God’s truth. This fundamental value is manifested by utilizing with thankfulness to God for His gifts especially the ability to sense, reason, reflect, and use both oral and written language which enable human to find out and communicate the truth and rightness.

Integration means that academic inquiries done by Moslem academicians should reflect the principle of integration between Islamic teaching and academic knowledge. This fundamental value is manifested by being committed in searching the meeting point between the academic and the Islamic truth, by improving the use of academic knowledge for religious life, and affirming the use or academic knowledge for societal benefits.

Honesty means that academic inquiries done by Moslem academicians should be written and reported with sincerity, both in relation to the data gathering and processing, and the using of others’ ideas and thoughts. This fundamental value is manifested in appreciating the normative, methodological, and academic principles, and stating explicitly the contributions in ideas and thoughts given by others. In other words, an Islamic inquiry should be freed from the practice of dishonesty, forgery, plagiary, and other bad practices.

Transparancy means that academic inquiries done by Moslem academicians should based on the spirit of openness to any inputs, criticism, and corrections from others. This fundamental value is manifested by trying to disseminate the academic works so that they have chances to be the object of criticism, comments, and corrections from others. This is the best way for the inquirers to dedicate their works to the world.

Professional Partnership means that academic inquires done by Moslem academicians should be based on the spirit of equality among the members of academic community as partners for advancing academic knowledge. This fundamental value is manifested by appreciating the academic ethics and code of conduct.

C. A Special Paradigms of Inquiry
The striking difference between the Islamic method of research and the secular method should be spelt out. That is, while the secular perspective is wholly based on object materialism, which is confined to visible objects, the Islamic perspectives enjoys the light of eternal divine revelations, which essentially goes along with the exalted reason that human mind could perceive of.

According to the Islamic perspective, the fields of academic inquiry cover not only the empirical facts, the social world, and human phenomena, but also the divine-related field. While the empirical facts may be approached by the “positivist paradigm”, the social world may be approached by both “positivist and interpretive paradigm”, and human phenomena may be approached by “interpretive and critical paradigm”, the last field should be approached by the “prophetic paradigm”.

Positivism says, "There is only one logic of science, to which any intellectual activity aspiring to the title of science must conform" (Keat and Urry, 1975). Thus, the human sciences and the natural sciences must use the same method. In this view, the differences between the natural and human sciences are due to the immaturity of the human sciences and their subject matter.

Positivist paradigm sees human and social sciences as an organized method for combining deductive logic with precise empirical observations of human behavior in order to discover and confirm a set of probabilistic causal laws that can be used to predict general patterns of human activity.

The focus of this perspective is to explain, to predict and control reality. Its origin is anchored in nineteenth century sociological positivism (objectivism) in which biological and mechanical analogies were adopted to the study of human behavior.

In general, the interpretive approach is the systematic analysis of socially meaningful action through the direct detailed observation of people in natural settings in order to arrive at understandings and interpretations of how people create and maintain their social worlds.
An interpretive researcher personally talks with and observes specific people. His of her conversations and observations are used to learn what each person to be the it’s major problem. The researcher puts what people say into the context of their daily affairs. After that, he or she describes findings in terms that others can understand.

The focus of this perspective is to understand or to interpret (human) reality. Its origin is grounded in nineteenth century German idealism and "verstehen" (understanding). Those using this paradigm posit that meaning is "socially constructed" through people. Hence, they focus not on "uncovering reality" but on generating understandings based on the "subjective" interpretations of people (researchers and "researched"), that is, how people "experience" and "interpret" their realities.

Critical paradigm agrees with the criticism of interpretivists to the positivism for its failure to deal with the meanings of real people and their capacity to feel and think. It also believes that positivism ignores the social context and is antihumanist. The critical inquirer also believes that positivism defends the status quo because it assumes an unchanging social order instead of seeing current society as a particular stage in an ongoing process.
Moreover, the critical approach also criticizes the interpretive approach for being too subjective and relativist. Interpretive approach is overly concerned with the subjective reality. To critical researchers, the interpretivist is amoral and passive. It does not take a strong value position or actively help people to see false illusions around them so that they can improve their lives.

In general, critical perspective defines human science as a critical process of inquiry that goes beyond surface illusions to uncover the real structure in the material world in order to help people change conditions and build a better world for themselves. A critical researcher begins by looking at the larger social and historical context. He of the inquires from a moral or critical standpoint.

The focus of critical perspective is the reality of suffering and oppression that require explication and then social change. In radical humanism, for instance, the key focus is on "human consciousness", that human beings create meaning, rather than on "structures" as theorized by the functionalists.

What does all this about three paradigms mean to us in a course of inquiry? First, it means that there is no single, absolutely correct approach to human science inquiry. The basis for doing inquiry or research in human sciences is not settled. In other words, more than one approach is currently “in the running”. Perhaps this will always be the case. An awareness for the approaches will help us when we read research reports.

Second, it means that what we try to accomplish when we do research will vary with the approach we choose. For example, positivists are likely to conduct explanatory research, interpretive researcher are likely to do exploratory study, and critical researchers favor action-oriented research. By being aware of the approaches, we can make an informed decision about the type of study to conduct.

Third, the various techniques used in human sciences inquiry, are ultimately based on the assumptions of the different paradigms. Often, we will see research technique presented without the background reasoning on which it was originally based. By knowing about the approaches, we can better understand the principles on which the specific research techniques are based.

Fourth, the positivist paradigm emphasizes on the deductive approach which is reflected in the logic of theory verification or from (grand) theory to empirical reality, while the interpretivist paradigm emphasizes on the inductive approach which is reflected in the logic of theory generation of from empirical reality to (grounded) theory.

As a prophetic paradigm, Islamic perspective keeps three fundamental values, namely: humanization, liberation, and transcendent. The values serve as not only to criticize but also to direct the field of study. Islamic perspective holds that there are three valid sources of knowledge, namely: empirical realities, reasons, and divine revelation. The prophetic paradigm rejects the positivist claims that science should be value free, and that observable facts are the only valid source of knowledge.

Islamic perspective takes as its function to transform society by liberating, humanizing, and transcendental transformation. That is why, the position of prophetic paradigm is near to critical paradigm than positivist and interpretive paradigm.

D. Models of Research
In our perspective, Islam is not just only a religion, but also a blueprint of social order and conduct, and therefore, encompasses all domains of life, including science. The grand project of Islam, as stated in the holly Qur’an, is to establish a viable social order on earth that will be just and ethically based. That can be achieved when Moslems also develop academic inquiries.

The fundamental philosophy of inquiry according to Islam affirms that Moslem scholars have to develop and disseminate the Islamic philosophy of knowledge. The concept of ilm (knowledge) should be defined as the entire academic fields, namely: (1) ontologically covers both the empirical and non-empirical worlds, (2) epistemologically applies observational, logical, and divine revelation approach, and (3) axiologically is intended to increase knowledge of human about Allah, to develop Moslem society, and to solve various practical problems based on Islamic values and teachings.

Considering the domains of inquiry justified by Islamic teaching, there at least four clusters of models of research for Islamic Higher Education. They are: (1) empirical research, (2) literary studies, and (3) practical oriented studies, and (4) research and development.

In conducting empirical researches, a moslem inquirer may adopt the positivist, interpretive and ciritical methodology. In doing literary studies, as moslem inquirer may apply the textual, co-textual, contextual and intertextual methodology. In implementing practical oriented studies, a moslem inquirer may adopt the metodology of action research, evaluation research, and policy resarch. In conducting research and development, a moslem technologist may develop a hard-technological prototype, or soft-technological procedures.

The models of research we can adopt are not only determined by the appropriateness of the models, but also the nature of goals and the studied object of the inquires. All is dedicated to the increasing knowledge of human about Allah, developing Moslem society, and solving the various practical problems faced by human race.
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Bibliography
Abidin, Danial Yahya. 2009. Quran Saintifik: Meneroka Kecermalangan Quran daripada Teropong Sains. Kuala Lumpur: PTS Millenia Sdn. Bhd.
Hanafi, Hassan. 2000. “GLOBAL ETHICS AND HUMAN SOLIDARITY”. An Islamic Perspective”, a paper presented in an International Seminar on Islam and Humanism held by The State Institute of Islamic Studies ) Walisongo, Semarang, Indonesia, 16 November 2000.
Hassan, Riaz. 2006. “Sociology of Islam”, in Edgar F. Borgatta and Rhinda J.V.
Montgomery (eds.), Encyclopedia of Sociology. Volume 5. New York: Macmillan Reference USA.
Al-Hilali, Muhammad Taqiuddin and Khan, Muhammad Muhsin. The Noble Qur’an; English Translation of The Meanings and Commentary. King Fahd Complex for the printing of the holly qur’an. Madinah, K.S.A.
Yahya, Harun. 2004. Al Quran dan Sains (Edisi Bhs. Indonesia). Bandung: Dzikra.



Written by: Prof. Dr. Mudjia Rahardjo

Published by:
M. Asrori Ardiansyah, M.Ed
Teacher at Malang Indonesia

Sumber:
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